Benefits Online

Quality of Life

Recreation and parks are essential to Quality of Life

• 3.1 Recreation, sports, and arts/culture BUILD SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE SELF-IMAGE
• 3.2 Recreation, parks, fitness, sports, and arts/cultUre enhance LIFE SATISFACTION LEVELS
• 3.3 Recreation, parks, fitness, sports, and arts/culture enhance PERCEIVED QUALITY OF LIFE
• 3.4 Recreation, sports and arts/culture nurture growth, acquisition of life skills, and INDEPENDENT LIVING FOR THOSE WITH A DISABILITY

3.1 Recreation, sports, and arts/culture BUILD SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE SELF-IMAGE foundations to personal quality of life

Positive self-esteem is the single best variable defining emotional or life adjustment. Emotional and life adjustment are crucial to the overall health and well-being of the individual and the community. A positive self-concept (self-esteem) has been found to be associated' with regular participation in physical activity. (McAuley, 1994; Sonstroem, 1986; Weiss, 1987)

The International Society of Sport Psychology position statement (1991) stated there is an overall consensus that physical activity has been found to have a positive causal effect on self-esteem changes in adults.

After an extensive review of the literature, conclusions were that participation in exercise programs was associated with increases in self-esteem and its subcomponents such as the physical self; however, Iso-Ahola argues that participation is not sufficient and that the individual’s feelings about participation have the greatest impact on self-concept and self-esteem. Participation in appropriate activities which provide a successful experience and an increased sense of competence, may be more conducive to increased self-esteem. (CFLRI, 1995)

In a study on "The Effects of Arts and Music Education on Students' Self-concept" by Trusty et al. (1994), results showed self-concept is positively enhanced through arts, according to a review of 57 studies, as are language- acquisition, cognitive development, critical thinking ability, and social skills. The researchers examined studies of measurable results in the emotional and social development of children. The relationship between music and participation and self-concept was strongly in evidence. (in National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)

Results from a wide range of research have indicated consistently that participation in various physical activity programs increases self-esteem; 71% of pre-experimental studies, 74% of quasi -experimental, and 58% of experimental studies reported an increase in self-esteem after participation in physical activity. This relationship holds true regardless of age. (Wankel et al., 1994)

Exercise participation positively influences individual perceptions of their physical capabilities - their efficacy for physical activity - as well as personal efficacy. Effects on personal efficacy appear to hold for both mates and females across persons of different ages and for both acute and tong-term bouts of activity. The beneficial effects of physical activity on self-efficacy are also enduring as demonstrated by follow-up studies from 4 to 18 months in duration. Physical activity involvement positively affects self-efficacy as well as other psychosocial variables known to be mediated by self-efficacy such as increases in self-esteem, decreases in depression, stress and anxiety. (CFLRI, 1995)

Researchers examined the effects of acute and tong-term exercise on perceptions of personal efficacy in sedentary, middle-aged mates and females. Both sexes demonstrated significant increases in efficacy following acute exercise. Females, who demonstrated lower self-perceptions than mates at first, made dramatic increases in efficacy during the exercise program, equaling or surpassing the men. (McAuley et al., 1991)

In a well designed sport program, children can develop self confidence, become more autonomous, and develop feelings of self-worth. (Coop et al., 1991)

Physical activity has been shown to have both short and long-term psychological effects on well-being. A variety of research completed by numerous authors has shown that physical activity has been found to positively affect self-esteem, anxiety, depression, tension, and stress. (Rosenfeld et al., 1992)

Studies of the self-affirming potential of recreation situations demonstrate the powerful effect of recreation and leisure situations on the self-concept. Freely chosen or freely performed activities are most likely to promote self-affirmation. Other researchers have found that only subjects who perceived freedom of choice in their activity, incorporated new identity images into their self-concepts. (Haggard & Williams, 1991)

A study of participants in eight different recreation activities found -that recreation activities may serve identity building or identity reinforcement functions because they symbolize distinct identity images. "The study has served to fit a conceptual void between participation in recreation activities and some sort of "improvement" in the self-concept, the improved condition being reinforcement of certain facets of our identities, and definition of ourselves as individuals." (Haggard & Williams, 1991)

Benefits of outdoor recreation that are documented scientifically include benefits associated with development and nurturance of systems of social support and companionship; mental engagement in activities such as nature study; improved efficiency of one's self-concept from development and application of skills; value clarification through introspection; creative engagement and expression, and spiritual renewal. (Driver, Brown, & Peterson, 1991; in Mantes, 1996)

Research looking that most of the benefit could be termed as being based on the instrumental value of nature (Booth, 1994). However, for 20% of the respondents, the benefit was enhanced sense of self-awareness that comes from the urban nature experience which reflects the intrinsic value of nature. That is, rather than seeing improvements in self-awareness as being a direct benefit of contact with nature, for some respondents, the self-enrichment that occurs through encounters with urban nature, is what creates meaning from the experience. This moves the contribution to self-awareness aspect of contact with nature from the realm of benefit to that of essential component in interpreting experiences with the natural environment. ...The point of experiencing nature is; "the agreeable and dynamic process of interacting with the natural environment that is valued and sought out - the journey rather than the destination, as it were." (VanSiri, 1997)

There is substantial evidence that the 'stress, challenge' approach of Outward Bound tan produce significant and enduring changes in a variety of components of self-concept - conclusion based on a review of seven research studies. (Easley, 1991)

Burton (1981) reviewed 161 studies related to Outward Bound. Burton selected 38 of these as being most reliable; 17 or 45% of these used self-concept or a component of self-concept as the outcome variable. Of all the variables chosen in all of the studies, self-concept showed the most consistent positive change.

Another study at the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) by Dickinson administered a self-concept scale as a pre-test on the first day of a course, a post-test on the Last day, and a follow-up test 5 months after completion. Analysis revealed that the population of 42 experienced a positive change in self-concept and that the changes persisted for 5 months. ALI ten scales of the TSCS (Tennessee Self-Concept Scale) showed significant positive changes: self-criticism, total positive self, identify, self-satisfaction, behavior, physical self, moral-ethical self, personal self, family self, and social self. (Easley, 1991)

Outdoor adventure education elicits educational and personal outcomes that are much different than traditional classroom education. The greatest concentration of research has been in the psychological category centered on positive gains in self-concept for those individuals participating in survival training courses (Clifford & Clifford, 1967, Adams, 1970, Moses and Peterson, 1970, Ewert 1986; Crume, 1983 and many more). A second area of psychological outcomes that has been shown is the Locus of control orientation of adventure education participants (Wright, 1983; Moffau and Pless, 1983; Kessell, et al., 1985). Of equal importance is the idea that by participating in outdoor adventure education everyone can be a winner. Unlike competitive team sports where there must be a loser, outdoor adventure education provides an atmosphere where simply participating is winning; and this builds self image followed by self-confidence.

3.2 Recreation, parks, fitness, sports, and arts/cultUre enhance LIFE SATISFACTION LEVELS

A 1996 Recreation Survey reported people's reasons for participating in leisure activities; their important and very important rating regarding leisure and parks/recreation are as follows:

• 82.9% for pleasure;
• 74.9% for physical health/exercise;
• 73.9% to relax;
• 64.4% to enjoy nature;
• 59.9% to do something different;
• 64.4% to be with family;
• 58.7% to do things with friends;
• 55.5% for a challenge;
• 55.2% improve my skills;
• 54.1% learn new skills;
• 30.3% to be creative;
• 34.8% to meet new people;
• 52.1% for excitement.

The respondents of this same recreation survey stated that the jobs they did as a volunteer for their own satisfaction included:

• 9.5% executive volunteers;
• 12.6% committee members;
• 9.3% coach/manager/trainer;
• 28.2% volunteer worker;
• 2.9% other. (Alberta Community Development, 1996)

King (1989) and colleagues examined the influence of regular aerobic exercise on satisfaction with shape and appearance. Regular exercise influenced ratings of perceived fitness levels and of satisfaction with physical shape and appearance with weight. Even small changes in weight occurring with exercise resulted in increased satisfaction with weight, increased confidence and alertness among women, and decreased tension among men.

There is some correlational evidence that low levels of physical activity and fitness are associated with loneliness and social dissatisfaction among children. (Page, 1992)

A number of researchers have concluded that children participate in recreation, arts, and sports for one or more of these reasons:

• Fun and enjoyment
• Learning and improving skills
• Being with friends and socializing.
• Success and winning.
• Physical fitness and health.

Canada's Fitness Survey found that for adults; feeling better/personal fitness, having fun, controlling weight, increasing flexibility, and reducing stress were important factors for being active. (CFLRI, 1995)

A survey of Canada's three largest cities (Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver) funded by Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada stated that:

• Toronto and Vancouver residents overall satisfaction depended secondly on their satisfaction with recreational facilities (education was first for Toronto, climate was first for Vancouver citizens).
• Montrealers' overall satisfaction with their city depended (first most heavily upon whether or not they were pleased with their recreational facilities.

This survey shows a strong relationship between a city's recreational amenities and whether or not residents will find happiness in their city; thus recreation is important to urban well-being and personal satisfaction. (Muller, 1990)

Many studies have demonstrated that fun or enjoyment is one of the most important reasons for participating in sport or physical activity. This is true for young people engaged in organized youth sport programs (Fry et. al. 1981, Gill et. al. 1983, Gould et. al. 1982, Sapp and Houbenstricker 1978) and for adults engaged in sport or physical activity (Canada Fitness Survey 1983, Miller Lite Report 1983, Palm 1978, Wankel 1985, 1988). (in Wankel & Berger, 1991)

Teenagers generally report that involvement in sports, games, art, music performance, and hobbies are the most demanding and enjoyable activities in their lives, whether done in school or out of school. (Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1984)

A study in Poland involving 1,888 subjects aged 50 to 90 indicated that more than 70% of those who participated in regular physical activity expressed satisfaction with life, while only 42.9% of those who were not active were satisfied. (Wohl et al., 1981)

Several studies revealed the following:

• Leisure participation was the strongest contributor to the life satisfaction of older women. (Riddick et al., 1984)
• For non-institutionatized older adults engaged in leisure activities, intensity was more strongly associated with life satisfaction than the number of activities in which a person engaged. (Heppe et al., 1983)

Recent research on 'Benefits of Nature in the City' (VanSiri, 1997) found seven benefit categories evolved after discussions with three focus groups:

• Easy access to experience the peace and tranquillity of nature in contrast to the stress and built form of the city (27% of respondents).
• Chances for children and families to spend time together discovering and learning about nature in safe, convenient locations close to home (16%).
• Contributions to the quality of life in Calgary, which make the city attractive to residents, visitors and people or businesses looking to relocate (16%).
• Chances to appreciate the sights, sounds and wonders of nature in close proximity to home (15%).
• Opportunities to exercise conveniently out-of-doors in relaxing, refreshing settings.
• Places for people with dogs to get fresh air and exercise.

The first ranked benefit (easy access to peace ... ), suggests one of the most important benefits that interaction with the natural environment has for people, especially in an urban context, is the opportunity to experience a stress-reducing sense of peace and tranquillity, (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Schroeder, 1991) and it is suggested that this benefit is greatest when one's stress level is high to begin with (Ulrich, 1983) and that the benefit is achieved through relieving mental fatigue by reducing the variety of stimuli requiring one's attention. (Kaplan & Kaplan 1990, Gallagher, 1993)

The above seven benefit response categories were collapsed into type 'groupings as follows, with 3% unclassifiable:

• Psychological benefits - 42% of respondents
• Social benefits - 28% of respondents
• Physical benefits - 27% of respondents

This research supports the notion established in previous research (Ulrich & Addoms, 1981; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) that people likely benefit from the existence of the urban natural environment even if they are not in regular and direct contact with it. Both active park users and passersby are able to witness and connect with natural processes such as the changing seasons (Cooper, Marcus & Francis, 1990), or the foraging of wildlife in city parks. Also, respondents show that imagination and memories serve to keep people in emotionally close contact with their nature experiences so that physical proximity becomes irrelevant to recalling the pleasure that urban nature brings. (VanSiri, 1997)

Young & Crandal (1986) conducted a five year longitudinal study of frequency visitors to wilderness (in the Boundary Waters area) and found that self-actualization scores for visitors were significantly higher in 1984 than in 1979 and that active users had significantly higher scores than inactive users.

Self-actualization was measured before and after participation in a 5-week wilderness course at NOLS (National Outdoor Leadership School) and compared to a control group. The 163 participants showed positive changes in self-actualization regardless of participants' backgrounds. (Shin, 1988)

Using survey data covering Florida residents 55 years of age and over, researchers found that leisure satisfaction was a strong predictor of life satisfaction. When satisfaction with standard of living, health, leisure, family relations, and leisure participation were used in a regression analysis, 39% of the variance in life satisfaction was explained, with leisure satisfaction accounting for more than half of the explanatory power. (Ragheb & Griffith, 1982)

A sample of community residents in the US showed that the total bundle of leisure activities for adults 40 and over contributed significantly to their life satisfaction. (Steinkamp & Kelly, 1987) Similar findings were reported in a Canadian study of older adults which examined relationships linking Maslow's psychological needs to recreation participation and life satisfaction. (Romsa et al., 1985)

A sample of active middle-aged and older adults were examined; results showed that one's sense of physical competence was the best predictor of life satisfaction. Those people who participated in an exercise program had higher levels of perceived physical ability and also perceived their lives to be more satisfying. Researchers suggest that "an older exercise participant who perceives himself to be physically able, tends to be intrinsically motivated to engage in physical activity and not dependent on feedback from others and believes that his/her exercise programs meet affiliation needs, is likely to be satisfied with life in general". (Tappe et al., 1989)

3.3 Recreation, parks, fitness, sports, and arts/culture enhance PERCEIVED QUALITY OF LIFE - for individuals, families and communities

Experts agree that "... people spend their time, money and energy resources with the expectation of receiving benefits, not for the delivery of services themselves. Citizens don't buy programs or services, they buy expectations of benefits." (Crompton & Lamb, 1986). The Canadian study on 'The Use & Benefits of Local Government Parks and Recreation Services' (Harper et al., 1997) provides hard evidence about Canadians' perceptions of benefits associated with public parks and recreation. In this study, respondents were asked to report the degree to which they personally benefit from local parks and recreation and then to indicate the specific benefit they perceive. A benefit referred to "anything good that happens because public parks (and recreation) are-there and further ... either an improved condition or the prevention of a worse condition".

"Almost nine out of ten (86%) Canadians stated they personally benefit from public parks. Forty percent (40%) reported receiving a great deal of benefit, and 46% said they received somewhat of a benefit. Few (14%) perceived they do not benefit at all from the existence of parks."

"Benefits to household members were cited by 97% of all respondents. Most (52%) indicated that members of their household benefit somewhat, or a great deal (45%) from local parks. Almost no one (2%) indicated that members of their household do not benefit from parks at all..."

"More respondents in age categories from 21 to 55 years reported household members benefit a great deal than did respondents ages 15 to 20. Women were more likely than men to report that a household member benefits a great deal from parks. More respondents with post-graduate education indicated their household member(s) benefit a great deal from parks than did respondents with high school or less education. ..."

"More respondents who live in the largest communities (100,000+) indicated their household members benefit a great deal from local parks than did respondents who live in smaller communities (10,000 people)."

"Ninety-four percent (94%) of respondents reported local parks benefit their community.. Fifty-eight percent (58%) felt their community as a whole benefits a great deal from local park areas while 36% indicated their communities benefit somewhat. Very few (4%) felt their community did not benefit at all from local parks .."

"Specifically, older respondents were more likely than respondents under the age of 35 years to report their community benefits a great deal from local parks. Women were also more likely than men to report this level of community benefit."

"Respondents with post-secondary or higher education more frequently perceived community benefits of parks than did those with high school or less education. In terms of household income, respondents with incomes in excess of $60,000 more frequently reported their community benefits a great deal than did those with lower levels of income."

"More respondents from all regions outside of Quebec reported their community benefits a great deal from parks than did respondents from Quebec. Residents from Quebec or Atlantic Canada were most likely to report somewhat of a benefit."

"Respondents living in communities of 10,000+ people were more likely to report a great deal of community benefit from local parks than were respondents from smaller communities. Respondents in communities of less than 50,000 were more likely to report somewhat of a benefit."

Conclusions relating to the above mentioned benefits are:

• The vast majority of Canadians, more than eight out of ten (86%) use their local parks and recreation services. Use of such services continues across the life cycle, dispelling the notion that parks and recreation are primarily for the young. However, there is a general decline in the percentage of those who use such services after age 65. Perceived benefits attributed to such services cover a broad spectrum, but the majority relate to the individual and to society. In terms of individual benefits, exercise and health related benefits were the most frequently mentioned. Economic benefits were not often associated with local parks and recreation services. While considerable benefits are perceived at the individual, household and community level, three in five (58%) Canadians perceive local parks benefit their community "a great deal"; a mere four percent (4%) saw no benefit at all.
• While users of recreation services would be expected to benefit, 73% of non-users also perceived benefits from the provision of recreation services in their community. The most prevalent benefits mentioned are associated with opportunities for youth and in making their community a better place to live.
• Asked to consider what effect the absence of local parks and recreation services would have on themselves and members of their household, seven out of ten (69%) respondents recognized how this would limit what kids could do, how everyone would have fewer opportunities to improve their fitness and health, and how the Lives of all residents and their community generally would be more boring.
• An overwhelming majority of Canadians (80%) believe that their parks and recreation services are worth as much or more than the average they already believed to be paying through taxes. (Harper, Neider, Godbey, Lamont, 1997)

A parallel survey completed in the United States examined the public's perceptions of the benefits of recreation and parks services. The top five benefits of local park and playground use perceived from three perspectives were:

• Individual benefits - exercise/fitness, relaxation/peace, open space, place for kids, and nature
• Household benefits - exercise/fitness, relaxation/peace, fun/entertainment, place for kids and place to play
• Community benefits - exercise/fitness, place for kids, gathering place, activities and community spirit

Other findings in this study:

• Of those respondents who frequently used parks, 33% reported their health as excellent compared to 20% who did not use parks; those who did not use local parks were most likely to report fair or poor health
• Those most likely to report a great deal of personal benefit from local, parks were middle aged (36-55); 41% of them perceive a great deal of benefits
• The two most popular classes of activity for both individual and household members were team sports and cultural activities, ranking numbers one and two.
• 71% of non-users said they receive a benefit from local park/recreation services as follows: Social benefits (45%), personal benefits (19%), economic benefits (18%), facitity/activity (12%), environment (7%). (Godbey et al., 1992)

A study of recent migrants to the US assessed the factors that contribute to satisfaction with community life and found that five of the community dimensions explained 35% of the variance. The availability of outdoor recreation was the third best predictor of satisfaction -after friendliness of neighbours (first) and shopping facilities (second) - quality of schools was fourth, and maintenance of streets/roads was fifth. (Sofranko, Fliegel, 1984)

Allen & Beattie (1984) identified 25 items in seven dimensions that related to community life. All seven dimensions were determined to be important. 'Leisure life space' was ranked fifth behind the economic, health and safety, and environment dimensions. The dimensions of public administration and economy followed. In the predictive model, however, recreation was found to be the best predictor of one's overall satisfaction with community life.

A subsequent study in rural communities ranked leisure services 6th of the 7 dimensions. However, a subsequent regression analysis revealed that forty percent of the variance in overall satisfaction with community life was explained by the model with only three dimensions being significant contributors: public services (0.28), environment (0.24) and recreation (0.12). (Allen et al., 1987)

Several firms publish directories of cities based on livability and community quality; they measure what readers perceive to be important indicators- of quality of life. The 'Places Rated Almanac' uses 9 categories - including environment, the arts, and recreation; specific attributes that are measured include number of public golf courses, zoo size, number of movie theatres, % of area classified as park/ forest/wildlife refuge, number of museums, universities, symphonies, opera companies, and other cultural amenities. Muller (1990) asked 1,205 citizens of Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver what aspects of city life makes the greatest contribution to their overall happiness. For people in Montreal, overall satisfaction depended on recreational facilities; white in Toronto and Vancouver satisfaction with recreation facilities was second most important. He concluded that a city's recreation amenities have a strong influence on whether or not residents will find happiness, satisfaction, and the desire to stay in the city where they live, work and play. (Muller, 1990)

The Calgary Parks and Recreation Department conducted a study with 418 people that explored, 'public perceptions of quality of life in Calgary and the relationship between quality of Life and Calgary Parks and Recreation Highlights of results include:

• 92% believe that Calgary Parks and Recreation is either, very important/important in influencing their quality of life.
• 73% reported their own quality of life to be excellent or very good, 24% said satisfactory.
• Factors most influencing quality of life are entertainment, sports opportunities, friendly people, weather, economy and jobs, and the mountain and recreation opportunities.
• 93% reported leisure and recreation to be very important or important.
• High ranking benefits reported were park maintenance, clean, safe parks, available parks and paths, and children's programs.
• 93% of respondents said Calgarians receive value for their dollar. (Calgary Parks and Recreation, 1994)

In exploring the perceived benefits of public leisure services, Balmer and Harper (1989) asked key community leaders and decision makers to rank the relative importance of each benefit. The benefit receiving the highest level of importance was basic service to poorer residents followed by protection of natural environments. A National panel of experts then assessed the degree to which traditional parks and recreation services (parks and facilities) help to respond to perceived benefits. Neighbourhood mini and community parks, regional parks and natural areas were supported as needing protection.

The May-June/1997 issue of the UTNE Reader conducted a review searching for the 10 most enlightened towns/cities in America and Canada. The criteria used included the following:

• places that hold together as communities;
• communities that deal creatively with challenges and provide inspiration and practical ideas on how to improve;
• access to alternative health care;
• breadth of cultural activities, diverse spiritual opportunities;
• strong civic involvement with vitality - from historic preservation to recycling programs; sustainable -development;
• strong urban design weighed heavily - parks, green spaces, bikeways, and pedestrian amenities.

Parks and Recreation were a significant and important feature for every Canadian city or town chosen as the most enlightened. Features such as bicycle and walking paths, downtown forests, cultural diversity, great parks (both within the city core and in communities) were key factors.

The sharing of emotional experiences sometimes leads to relationships that athletes perceive as special. Many athletes claim that the risks and relationships associated with sport participation made them feel alive and aware in ways that non athletes simply cannot understand. (Coakley, 1994)

A 1992 Statistics Canada survey stated that a total of 869,000 Albertans (45%) participated in recreational sport on a regular basis and of these participants 450,000 (275,000 males; 175 females) reported they participated in sport through a club, community recreation program, a league or provincial sport association. (Sport Canada, 1994)

Overall in-depth analysis of 1,600 respondents' benefit preferences shows that, as some researchers have speculated, "nearby nature, can fulfil the same needs for people as nature in more remote and primitive settings " (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989, p.171). In fact, the results of this study indicate there is a definite expectation on the part of urban dwellers that the benefits most commonly attributed to being in a wilderness setting will result from contact with nature in the city. This is most true for the benefits seen as arising from the firmly established belief that nature provides an escape or refuge from the stress of city life and that it is an essential source of aesthetic appreciation. (VanSiri, 1997)

The results of the study that looked at the 'value of nature at the workplace' and the individual’s perceptions of job stresses plus physical and mental well-being were striking. Employees whose outdoor views included only built components experienced higher levels of job stress than others did. Desk workers who could see some natural elements outdoors reflected higher job satisfaction levels than did either those with built elements outdoors or no outdoor views at all. Both workers, those with nature views and those who worked outdoors reported substantially lower levels of job stress. Furthermore, they reported fewer health problems and higher levels of overall life satisfaction than did the rest of the sample. (Kaplan et al., 1989)

Inner city residents were interviewed about how important nearby nature was in their daily lives; the results clearly showed a high perceived value of nearby nature among inner city residents whose opportunities to enjoy nature are limited. (Kaplan et al., 1989)

Residents of 38 neighbourhoods completed a survey dealing with nature interests and activities as well as neighborhood and life satisfaction levels. The results showed that nature access and nature-related involvements affect neighbourhood satisfaction and feelings of general life satisfaction. (Kaplan et al., 1989)

A 1992 study by the California Department of Parks and Recreation found that more than three quarters of all Californians felt that outdoor recreation was important or very important to their quality of life. (Kennedy, 1993)

Living close to natural environments was found to be very important to elderly residents and enhanced their quality of life. Specific results of the study showed that different kinds of outdoor settings close to one's home was associated with high residential and life satisfactions. Residents of a complex with nature nearby and who had private balconies were more satisfied with their housing than residents of a high-rise site. Having window views of nature was also associated with higher residential satisfaction. (Talbot et al, 1991)

A study to determine the calming effects of natural versus urban environments had subjects watch a stressful movie and then measure recovery; subjects recovered faster and more completely when exposed to follow-up films featuring natural versus urban environments. (Ulrich et al., 1991)

"Greater muscular endurance leaves one less fatigued and with greater energy reserves to pursue a variety of leisure activities, thus contributing to the quality of life." Muscular endurance is highly trainable and can be increased by as much as 1.00% in a relatively short period of time. (Sharkey, 1984)

Music therapists and researchers have documented the powers of music to relax and perhaps even heal (Hoffman, 1990). A person's central nervous system will select what information it will process, a concept known as selective attention (Marteniuk, 1976). Normally, the nervous system will select a pleasurable state over one not so pleasant, thus, music will draw your attention away from the tired feeling and we can do more and last longer if music is there to help. Our earth functions through rhythms (day/night, tides), and humans walk with a rhythmic pulse. The beating of a drum has an almost hypnotic power, clapping hands attracts and holds attention. "The communality that is shared by a group of people moving together in a common rhythm creates a bond and mutual feeling of good will." (Ministry of Tourism and Recreation, 1992)

3.4 Recreation, sports and arts/culture nurture growth, acquisition of life skills, and INDEPENDENT LIVING FOR THOSE WITH A DISABILITY

An analysis of 27 controlled experimental studies with handicapped and normal children revealed that participation in physical education and/or directed play contributed to the development of self-esteem. The relationship appeared stronger for handicapped children. Physical fitness and aerobic activities had a much more profound impact on self-esteem .among handicapped children than did curriculum activities such as dance, sport skills, and perceptual motor programs. (Wankel et al., 1994; Gruger, 1986)

Levitt (1991) summarizes the therapeutic benefits of recreation for mentally ill and emotionally disturbed persons based on the research findings of many different studies. For mixed recreation activities, some of the key benefits include: increased quantity and quality of social interactions; increased range of interests; enhanced self-concept; increased fun for patients.

The same review of literature also indicates that some. of the therapeutic benefits of physical exercise programs (jogging or running) include: increased interest in and improved attitudes toward school; reduced anger, restlessness, tension, stress, anxiety, and frustration; increased self-esteem, self-concept, and a sense of competency and mastery; improved physical health and fitness; enhanced social interactions; increased joy.

According to Statistics Canada's Health and Activity Limitation Survey, about 17.8% of Canada's adult population (aged 15 or over) had some form of disability in 1991 - totaling 3.8 million Canadians. Recreation constitutes a major opportunity for people with disabilities to socialize and enjoy social interaction. leisure is a critical component of quality of life and contributes to overall health status. (Burt Perrin & Associates, 1989)

Westland (1991) found in a review of literature on leisure and mental health that "virtually all play situations provide ample testimony to the fact that once the game starts, social distinctions disappear and the 'status' of the participants is determined by their ability to play the game."

Sport participation among individuals who are physically challenged promotes health, physical appearance, and coordination. (Brasile et. al., 1991)

From the WHO model of disablement, several categories apply to the effects of training: visceral, musculoskeletal, generalised and impairments related to other biological systems. Aerobic exercise training can significantly improve physical capacity in individuals with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) documented by:

• Hoffmann (1986) summarized results from 13 studies noting an aver age improvement in V02 max of 20% (range of 0 to 61%) after 4 to 20 weeks of training.
• Knutsson, et al. (1973) reported a 41% improvement of average power output with 10 SCI’s after intensive aerobic training.
• Nilsson et al. (1975) reported significant improvements of isotonic muscle strength and endurance (19 to 80% respectively) with SCI's after a 7 week weight and aerobic training program. Most studies observe that similar benefits with the maximum load resistance of the quadriceps can be improved by 50 to 100% following strength training. In some cases,, an efficient functional electrical stimulation-training may make the difference between success or failure of ambulation and other functional movements.
• Hjeltnes & Jansen (1990) noted a lower incidence of medical complications (urinary tract infections, pressure sores) than inactive individuals.
• Cross-sectional comparisons have shown that wheelchair athletes score significantly higher on the vigour subscale and lower on the depression subscale than do their nonathletic peers with SCI. Also psychological testing has shown a higher level of self-satisfaction, a stronger self-image, fewer suicidal tendencies and more independent attitude among wheelchair athletes than among relatively inactive people with SCI. (Noreau, 1995)

In a study involving 139 physically disabled athletes and 22 physically disabled non-athletes, it was discovered that disabled athletes had significantly higher self-esteem, exhibited greater life satisfaction and happiness, are more externalized, and attain more education than non-athtetes. (Villiant et al., 1985)

Creativity is naturally developed through the Arts. In a study on the 'Effect of a Dance Program on the Creativity of Preschool Handicapped Children by Jay (1991), results showed that; "Originality and imagination scores were significantly higher for preschool children with disabilities after participation in a dance program than for those participating in the adapted physical education program". (In National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)

In a study on "The Effectiveness of Creative -Drama as an Instructional Strategy to Enhance the Reading Comprehension Skills of Fifth-Grade Remedial Readers", by DuPont (1992), results showed that "Fifth grade-readers using creative drama as a learning strategy scored consistently higher on the Metropolitan Reading Comprehension Test." The drama readers' scores also showed a steady increase over the same six-week period. (In National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)

Extensive literature and research was reviewed to determine the benefit derived from involvement in therapeutic recreation during a conference that included over 80 of Canada's finest researchers, educators and practitioners. The proceeding reported the following: "Involvement of Therapeutic Recreation Reduces the Risk of Physical Complications Secondary to Disability":

• Reduced incidences of decubiti and urinary tract infections were found among wheelchair athletes compared to wheelchair non athletes (Stotts, 1986)
• Increased activity has been shown to reduce medical complications and increase survival rate. (Anson & Shepard, 1990, Krouse & Crewe, 1987)

A study on adults reported improved cholesterol levels as a result of aerobic exercise. The improvements represented a potential reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease, a known secondary complication related to physical disability of. approximately 35%. (Coyle, Santiago, Kinney, Blair, 1991)

"Involvement in Therapeutic Recreation Improves the General Physical and Perceptual Motor Functioning of Individuals with a Disability". Proven benefits are:

• A horseback riding program has been shown to improve coordination of individuals with physical disabilities. (Brock, 1988)
• Improved perceptual -motor abilities, body perception, balance, locomotor agility, ball throwing and tracking were reported among individuals who were mentally disabled and were involved in a physical recreation program. (Marini, 1978)

A strong, rationale has been developed in the literature and research for nature-based programs and opportunities for persons with disabilities. The effects on individuals documented center on the psychological, social and mental health benefits from contact with nature (McAvoy et al., 1989, Robb et al., 1987; Schleien et al., 1993). These benefits include increased self-concept self-esteem and self-fulfillment, personal growth, increased leisure skills, increased social adjustment and cooperation, enhanced body image and positive behavior change.

Other research on integrated outdoor experiences where persons with and without disabilities participate together has indicated positive attitude and lifestyle changes, willingness to take risks, and higher feelings of self-efficacy. (McAvoy et al., 1989; Stark, 1981) Other documented benefits from this research include increased understanding of the capabilities of persons with disabilities, more positive attitudes about persons with disabilities and increased tolerance of differences among people. A recent longitudinal study of the benefits of integrated outdoor recreation experiences confirmed these benefits plus reported improved sensitivity to the needs of others, an increased sense of priorities, and an increased respect for nature. (Anderson et al., 1993) The participants in this latter study who had disabilities reported that the wilderness environment appeared to intensify and focus individual efforts producing a dramatic impact on group development and enhanced social integration of group members. The wilderness setting appeared to be crucial in helping groups form and perform together. (McAvoy, 1996)

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